The 14 ACT Grammar Rules You Must Know

The 14 ACT Grammar Rules You Must Know SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The ACT English section consists of questions that test your knowledge of grammar and writing style. By learning and understanding the grammar rules tested on the ACT, you'll be well on your way to getting an excellent ACT English score. In this article, I'll explain the most important ACT English grammar rules and provide sample questions from real ACTs. How to Use This Guide to ACT Grammar Rules The ACT English section tests numerous grammatical concepts, with many appearing consistently on every test.In this guide, I’ll give you explanations and examples for the most commonly tested ACT grammar rules.Keep in mind that there are also style and organization questions on ACT English that are unrelated to specific grammar rules. This article is a great study tool if you are trying to get a middle score, just starting your ACT English studying, or reviewing the most importantACT grammar rules.If your target score is above 30, you should also study the grammar rules that are only rarely tested on the ACT. For more examples or explanations of the rules I discuss below, or if you want to learn more about ACT grammar rules,read our other articles onACT English. The 14 Most Commonly Tested ACT Grammar Rules These rules are by far the most important for you to learn and understand in order to conquer the ACT English section. I've linked each rule to the article in which it's explained more thoroughly. You can also find in these articles explanations for related grammar rules that are less important but still tested on the ACT. #1: Surround Non-Restrictive Clauses and Appositives With Commas Comma rules are extremely important to know for the ACT, and these comma rules are repeatedly tested on ACT English. Relative Clauses: Restrictive vs Non-Restrictive Relative clauses are dependent clauses that describe a noun and start with a relative pronoun or adverb such as "who," "that," "which," or "where." The basic rule is that non-restrictive clauses should be surrounded by commas, whereas restrictive clauses should not be. On the ACT, clauses that start with "which" are always non-restrictive, and clauses that start with â€Å"that† are always restrictive.Therefore, clauses that start with â€Å"which† should always be surrounded by commas, whilethose that start with â€Å"that† should never be. What's a Restrictive Clause? Restrictive clauses are essential to the meaning of the sentence. You can’t take a restrictive clause out of a sentence without significantly changing the meaning of the sentence. Here’s an example: People who wear sunglasses indoors aren’t invited to the party. If you remove the clause "who wear sunglasses indoors," you substantially change the meaning of the sentence. You wouldn't know which people aren't invited, and you’d be left with "People aren’t invited to the party."Because you can’t remove this clause without changing the meaning of the sentence, the clause should not be surrounded by commas. This kid can't come to the party. (Court Kizer/Flickr) What's a Non-Restrictive Clause? A non-restrictive clause is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. If you got rid of the clause, the sentence would still make sense, and its meaning wouldn’t change.Here’s an example sentence with the non-restrictive clause underlined: My day, which consisted of eating and studying calculus, was incredibly boring. The clause "which consisted of eating and studying calculus" adds more information about my day, but if it were removed, the overall meaning of the sentence would be unchanged. This is what the sentence looks like if we remove the non-restrictive clause: My day was incredibly boring. As you can see, the overall meaning of the sentence is the same. The sentence is still describing my day as boring; we just have less information detailing why it was boring. Actual ACT Example The clause "who had gathered essential material critical to writing his best-selling novel Roots from a griot in Gambia" is a non-restrictive clause which adds more information about Alex Haley. Since a non-restrictive clause must be surrounded by commas, the correct answer is D. What Is an Appositive? An appositive is a descriptive phrase that doesn’t include a verb. Like a non-restrictive clause, an appositive can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. Here’s an example sentence with the appositive underlined: Lily, my niece, is the most exceptional child in the world. If we get rid of the appositive, the sentence still has the same meaning: Lily is the most exceptional child in the world. This isn't my niece. Actual ACT Example The phrase "known as the Navajo code talkers" is an appositive and thereforemust be surrounded by commas. Because the original sentence is correct,the correct answer is F.Answer choices G and J are both wrong because there is no comma after "group." Also, answer choice H is incorrect because it creates a run-on sentence. #2: Don't Put a Comma Before or After a Preposition On the ACT, it’s always incorrect to put a comma after a preposition and very rarely correct to place one before.Here are some example sentences that include commas incorrectly placed before or after prepositions: Ana enjoys traveling, to Hawaii for fun. Lucy was petrified to look under, the bed. The commas before "to" and after "under" should be removed. Here are the corrected versions of the sentences: Ana enjoys traveling to Hawaii for fun. Lucy was petrified to look under the bed. brownpau/Flickr The one exception to this rule is when a preposition introduces a non-restrictive clause. Here’s an example of this: Cade, with whom I went to college, is an extremely skilled physician. The clause "with whom I went to college" is a non-restrictive clause that provides more information about Cade. Because non-restrictive clauses must be surrounded by commas, the comma before the preposition "with" is correct. Keep in mind that this situation rarely comes up on the ACT. Generally, commas shouldn’t be put before or after a preposition on the test. Actual ACT Example The comma before the preposition "of" is wrong; there also shouldn’t be any comma after "rights." Therefore, the correct answer is C. On the ACT, if you’re unsure whether or not there should be a comma, it's best toerr on the side of leaving the comma out. #3: Don't Separate Two Independent Clauses With a Comma Separating two complete thoughts with a comma is a grammar error known as a comma splice, and it's the most common type of run-on sentence that appears on the ACT. Here's an example of a comma splice: I’m going to my friend’s house, it’s really far away. As you can see, the clauses before and after the comma are complete thoughts that could stand alone as sentences. There are a few ways to correct a comma splice. One is to place a conjunction after the comma: I’m going to my friend’s house, but it’s really far away. Alternatively, you can put a relative pronoun after the comma: I’m going to my friend’s house, which is really far away. Finally, you can use a semicolon to correctly separate two complete thoughts: I’m going to my friend’s house; it’s really far away. I'm not sure what this means. (Laura Olin/Flickr) Actual ACT Example Both clauses before and after the comma are independent and could stand alone as sentences; therefore, this sentence is a comma splice. Since adding a conjunction after the comma corrects the comma splice, the correct answer is B.While answer choice C also adds a conjunction, this choice doesn’t work since the word "so" doesn’t make sense in the context of the sentence. ("So" implies a cause-effect relationship, whereas "and" connects two related thoughts.) #4: Use the Fewest Words Possible When it comes to the ACT, the shortest, grammatically correct answer choice that expresses the same information as the original sentence will be the right answer.Sentences that are more concise are easier to comprehend. Wordiness On ACT English, wordiness is a grammatical error in which words or phrases are added to a sentence unnecessarily. Here's an example of a wordy sentence: Melissa enjoys having fun by way of shooting at the gun range. And here is the corrected version of the sentence: Melissa enjoys shooting at the gun range. Clearly, the second sentence is more concise, and it stillcontains all the relevant information that’s in the first sentence. That looks like a fancy gun- but, then again, I don't know anything about guns. Actual ACT Example The phrase "as time goes by" is unnecessary- it doesn’t add any information that can’t be inferred without it. Answer choices B and C are incorrect because the sentence already implies that her collection grows "gradually" and "with the passing of time." Thus, the correct answer is D. Redundancy Wordiness and redundancy are similar errors. Ifa word or phrase is redundant, this means it can be eliminated without altering the meaning of the sentence. Here is an example of a sentence with a redundancy error (the underlined part): I quickly finished the test in a rapid manner. The phrase "in a rapid manner" is redundant because the word "quickly" already implies that I finished the test rapidly. This sentence can therefore be corrected by simply getting rid of the redundant phrase: I quickly finished the test. Actual ACT Example The word "peril" means danger; therefore, the phrase "dangerous peril" is redundant- that is, the word "dangerous" can be eliminated without changing the meaning of the sentence. This means thecorrect answer is J. Jumping out of an airplane can put your life in peril. (Morgan Sherwood/Flickr) #5: Modifiers Must Be Next to What They're Modifying The general rule regarding modifiers is that they must be placed next to whatever it is they're modifying. On ACT English, there are two types of modifier errors, which we introduce below. Misplaced Modifiers Generally, adjectives and adverbs go before the word they’re modifying, and prepositional phrases go after the word they’re modifying. Here's an example of a misplaced modifier: George broke the plate inthe kitchen that his mom bought on their vacation. The way the sentence is written makes it seem as though George’s mom bought the kitchen(instead of the plate) on their vacation. Here is a corrected version of the sentence: In the kitchen, George broke the plate that his mom bought on their vacation. Now, it’s evident that George's mom bought the plate- not a kitchen!- on their vacation. Actual ACT Example The phrase "in pink-tinted glasses" should come after the word it’s modifying. From the sentence, we can safely assume that it was the woman who was in pink-tinted glasses. Answer choice G is the most logical, grammatically correct answer. Dangling Modifiers When a sentence begins with a modifying phrase, the introductory phrase must be immediately followed by a comma and the noun being described. Here’s an example of a dangling modifier, with the incorrect part underlined: While walking through the grocery store, Jane’s shopping cart knocked three bags of Doritos onto the floor. The way the sentence is written makes it seem as though Jane’s shopping cart- instead of Jane- was walking through the grocery store. There are a couple of ways to fix the sentence. One is to place the noun that's being modified right after the comma: While walking through the grocery story, Jane knocked three bags of Doritos onto the floor with her shopping cart. Alternatively, you can place the subject in the introductory phrase: While Jane was walking through the grocery story, her shopping cart knocked three bags of Doritos onto the floor. Be careful with the Doritos. (theimpulsivebuy/Flickr) Actual ACT Example The original sentence implies that "she" died down; however, this doesn’t make much sense. From this sentence, we can infer that a fire dies down- not "she."Answer choice J is clear and concise, and it corrects the dangling modifier. #6: Keep Verb Tenses Consistent The basic verb consistency rule is that verbs should remain consistent in both tense and form throughout a sentence.Here’s an example of a consistency error, with the incorrect part underlined: Twenty-five years ago, Josh bought Cross Colours clothing and learns how to rap. The verb "learns" should be in the past tense. Not only should "learns" be consistent with the past tense "bought," but also the phrase "twenty-five years ago" indicates that this was something that happened in the past. Here's the corrected version of the sentence: Twenty-five years ago, Josh bought Cross Colours clothing and learned how to rap. Furthermore, the verb tenses of surrounding sentences can provide context clues for the proper tense to use in a given sentence to maintain consistency. Here's another example of a consistency error: Natalie works in fashion. She liked keeping up with the latest style trends. The shift from the present tense "works" to the past tense "liked" doesn’t make sense in context, and the verb tenses should remain consistent. Here's a corrected version of the sentence: Natalie works in fashion. She likes keeping up with the latest style trends. Actual ACT Example The verbs "continue" in the first sentence and "score" in the second sentence are in the present tense; as a result,the shift to the past tense with the word "were" doesn’t make sense given the context. To fix this error, we must change "were" to the present tense. The correct answer is C. (Answer choice D unnecessarily adds the infinitive "to be.") #7: Choose the Right Word Based on Context Word choice is a common topic on the ACT English section. Word choice refers to knowing which specific word to use in the context of a given sentence. There are two common types of word choice questions that often appear on the ACT. Homophones Homophones are words that sound the same but have different meanings.Here are some homophones that have appeared on the ACT: its - it's their - they're whose - who's would've - would of All the words with apostrophes are contractions (it's = it is, they're = they are, who's = who is, and would've = would have). By contrast, "its," "their," and "whose" show possession. Finally,"would of" is always wrong and should be corrected to either "would have" or "would've." You might also come across the word "its'," which is not a real word and will thus always be incorrect. Here is an example of a word choice error: The committee chose not to defend it’s decision. In this sentence, the use of the contraction "it's" is incorrect. Instead, we should use the possessive word "its" to indicate thatthe decision belongs tothe committee: The committee chose not to defend its decision. Related Words The second type of word choice error on the ACT involves synonyms or related words. With this type of question, a word will be underlined and the answer choices will be related words. However, only one word will be correct given the context of the sentence. Actual ACT Example The context of this sentence indicates that the underlined word should signify that the celebration is made bigger or more important. Even though "heightened," "raised," and "lifted" can all mean making something higher, only the word "heighten" can mean to deepen or intensify. Therefore, the correctanswer is A.The celebration isn’t literally lifted up but rather made more important. These types of questions can be difficult becausethey require a deep knowledge of vocabulary. They’re hard to prepare for since you don’t know which words will appear on the ACT. However, if you are able to recognize a word choice question, hopefully you’ll be able to select the right word using the context of the sentence. Also, you can keep track of word choice questions from previous ACTs. #8: Use the Correct Idiomatic Expression Idiom questions don’t conform to specific rules. You have to rely on your intuitive grasp of English and your knowledge of specific phrases to choose the right idiomatic expression. On most idiom questions on the ACT, you’ll be asked either to determine which preposition to use in a given sentence, or whether to use a gerund or an infinitive. Prepositional Idioms For prepositional idioms, you need to know which preposition to use based on the context of the sentence. Here’s an example sentence with a prepositional idiom error underlined: Because Alexis was three hours late, I was worried of her. The correct expression is "worried about." There's no specific rule you can learn to identify this error; you just have to be familiar with the phrase. Idiom questions are the only types on ACT English for which it's in your best interest to rely on what sounds right. Idioms With Gerunds or Infinitives Gerunds are verbs that act as nouns and end in "ing."Examples of gerunds include "running," "talking," and "singing."Infinitives are verbs used as nouns; they are constructed by putting the word "to" before a verb.Examples of infinitives are "to run," "to talk," and "to sing." While gerunds and infinitives can be interchangeable in some sentences, other sentences require the use of one or the other.Here’s an example of an idiom error: You decided reading this article. In the sentence, the gerund "reading" should be changed to an infinitive: You decided to read this article. Unfortunately, there is no specific rule you can rely on to know when to use a gerund or infinitive in an expression. Try to use your knowledge of idioms and keep track of idiom questions on previous ACTs. Actual ACT Example The correct expression is "right to wear clothing," sothe correct answer is C. Enokson/Flickr #9: A Pronoun Must Agree With Its Antecedent This rule means that a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. A plural pronoun must refer to a plural noun, and a singular pronoun must refer to a singular noun.Here's an example of a pronoun number agreement error: Marshall forgot their homework. The pronoun "their" is referring to the homework of Marshall. Because Marshall is one person and "their" is a plural pronoun, this sentence has a pronoun agreement error. Here is the corrected version of this sentence: Marshall forgot his homework. Real ACT Example In this sentence, the plural pronoun "them" refers to the Navajo language, which is singular. The pronoun "it" at the end of the sentence also indicates that the underlined pronoun should be in the singular form. The correct answer is C.Answer choice B is wrong because it has a subject-verb agreement error. #10: Use Apostrophes Correctly to Form Possessives There are almost always a couple of apostrophe questions on the ACT. If you know apostrophe rules, these questions should be relatively simple. If a word is singular or plural and does not end in "s," you add an "s" after the apostrophe to make it possessive.Here are a couple of examples: I am the people’s champion. Joe’s career isn’t going very well. To create a possessive for a plural word that ends in "s," just add an apostrophe after the "s." Here is an example of this: The traditionalist thought that all of the basketball players’ shorts were too long. Actual ACT Example This sentence is referring to the age of one person; therefore, the correct version of the possessive pronoun is "person’s."The correct answer is A.Answer choice D is wrong because a comma can’t come between a subject and a verb. #11: Colons Must Come After a Complete Sentence Colons are usually used to introduce lists or explanations.The key rule for colons is that they must come after a complete sentence. So if you were to end the sentence where the colon is placed, the sentence should make sense and be a complete thought.Here is an example: Incorrect: Sabrina needs to purchase a few items for her project like: construction paper, paint, and glitter. Correct: Sabrina needs to purchase a few items for her project: construction paper, paint, and glitter. The first sentence is incorrect because the part of the sentence that comes before the colon isn’t a complete thought. Actual ACT Example In this sentence, the colon is unnecessary and improperly placed. The part before the colon isn’t a complete thought. In answer choices H and J, the commas are unnecessary. The correct answer is therefore answer choice G. #12: Semicolons Separate Two Complete Thoughts Semicolons are like periods; they separate two independent clauses.As a result, you should be able to replace any semicolon with a period. On ACT English, you might find a randomly placed semicolon or need to replace a comma with a semicolon in order to fix a comma splice.Here are two example sentences with semicolons used both correctly and incorrectly: Incorrect: Because Dave wanted an adrenaline rush; he decided to go skydiving. Correct: Dave wanted an adrenaline rush; he decided to go skydiving. The second sentence is correct because the clauses on both sides of the semicolon are independent and could stand alone as sentences. Actual ACT Example Here, the semicolon is just randomly placed after the verb "are"; there is no independent clause on either side of the semicolon. Since no punctuation is necessary after "are," the correct answer is answer choice C. #13: Use the Correct Relative Pronoun The ACT likes to test your knowledge of relative pronouns. There are two specific relative pronoun rules that are important to know for ACT English. Relative Pronouns Must Agree With Their Antecedents Here are what different relative pronouns can be used to refer to: who and whom - people only when - specific times or time periods only where - places only which- any noun other than a person that- any noun whose- possessive that can be used for people or things In many situations, more than one relative pronoun can work. However, in other situations, only one will be acceptable. Here's an example of a relative pronoun error: Incorrect: I love going to restaurants in whichI can get unlimited breadsticks. Correct: I love going to restaurants where I can get unlimited breadsticks. The relative pronoun here is referring to "restaurants"- a location- so "where" is more concise and appropriate. Breadsticks! (apasciuto/Flickr) Here is another example: Incorrect: Johnny enjoys books where he gets to choose his own adventure. Correct: Johnny enjoys books in which he gets to choose his own adventure. A book isn’t a location; therefore, "where" is the incorrect relative pronoun. Media, including books, movies, and articles, should be modified with "in which." Who vs Whom You might have no idea when to use "who" or "whom," but the rule isn’t actually that complicated. Basically, "who" is used as a subject and "whom" is used as an object.A subject does an action or is being described, whereas an object has something done to it. An object can be an object of a verb or preposition. Take a look at our article on pronoun case for more information about subject case vs object case. Now, let's take a look at a couple of examples. First, here is an example sentence using the relative pronoun "who": James, who is my friend, lives in Oklahoma City. In this sentence, "who" is being used correctly. The word "who" is modifying James, and he is my friend. Next, here's an example sentence that uses the relative pronoun "whom": My aunt, from whom I got this jacket, is a very interesting woman. In this sentence, "whom" is also being used correctly. The word "whom" modifies my aunt; I got the jacket from her. You should be able to substitute he/she/they for "who" and him/her/them for "whom." Also, always use "who" before a verb and "whom" after a preposition. Actual ACT Example Remember that "where" can only be used to modify a location. Because storytellers are people, "where" is incorrect.Now, let’s find the right answer. Answer choice D is wrong because the "they" after "that" is unnecessary. Additionally, since the relative pronoun comes before a verb, you can’t use "whom." This means thatthe correct answer is B.The word "who" modifies the storytellers who are doing the action. #14: Subjects and Verbs Must Agree Subjects and verbs must agree, meaning that you must use the singular form of a verb with a singular subject and the plural form of a verb with a plural subject.Take a look at these example sentences: Incorrect: Rock stars likes to entertain adoring fans. Correct: Rock stars like to entertain adoring fans. The King! If the verb is in the present tense and the subject is in the third person (he/she/it/they), the verb usually ends in "s" in the singular form and does not in the plural form.In the example above, the subject is "rock stars," which is plural; therefore, the verb "like" should also be in the plural form ("like" instead of "likes"). On the ACT, subject-verb agreement questions can be even more difficult if there is a phrase that separates the subject from the verb. Here's an example of this: Incorrect: The clothes in my bedroom is in my closet. Correct: The clothes in my bedroom are in my closet. The subject of the sentence is "clothes," which is plural, so the verb should be in the plural form. However, the prepositional phrase "in my bedroom" separates the subject from the verb. If a verb is underlined, make sure you identify the subject that corresponds with the verb to ensure that the subject and verb agree with each other. Also, keep in mind that a subject can never be contained in a prepositional phrase. Actual ACT Example This is a relatively basic subject-verb agreement question. Looking atthe previous sentence, we know that the verb should be in the present tense, so G and H are wrong. The subject of this sentence is "molecules," which is plural. Therefore, we should use the plural form of the verb "bump." The correct answer is J. Other Grammar Rules on ACT English While the rules I explained above are the most often tested on ACT English, there are some other grammar rules that will be tested as well. Here are the links to our other articles that explain the remaining grammatical rules you'll need to know for the ACT: Parallelism Run-on Sentences and Fragments Adjectives vs Adverbs Punctuation Commas The Complete Guide to ACT Grammar Rules What's Next? Now that you're comfortable with the grammar rules on ACT English, make sure you know about style and organization questions. These include questions dealing withadd and delete options, author's main goals, transitions, and macro logic. In addition, we recommend masteringthe five critical concepts you must understand to be able to ace ACT English. Finally, to excel on the ACT English section, you'll need to determine the best approach for reading passages. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep classes. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our classes are entirely online, and they're taught by ACT experts. If you liked this article, you'll love our classes. Along with expert-led classes, you'll get personalized homework with thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step, custom program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Try it risk-free today:

Free Essays on White Fang

White Fang is another of Jack London’s tales about the far reaches of the Artic. The journey into the lawless, and mysterious mind of a wild animal you will grow to love. The only survivor of the litter, the young pup was tested early. Already demonstrating a tight grip on life, that later would prove to be crucial. This puppy inherited brute strength from his wolf father, and great intelligence from his dog mother. This would eventually mold him into the freak of nature he was. The pup learned fast, and steadily he grew, both mentally and physically. In the Indian camp the little pup honed all his survival skills thanks to the daily persecution by Lip Lip and the puppy pack. In addition he and his mother were soon separated leaving young White Fang emotionally scarred. This caused a premature puppy hood, which would further help shape White Fang into clever ferocious beast that he would soon need to be. After settling with an Indian family, White Fang was soon sold to the biggest coward in the north. In the hands of Beauty Smith, White Fang was stripped of his freedom and dignity. Forced to fight to the death with strange dogs White Fang had never seen before. Battle after battle does White Fang proves his tenacious hold on life. White Fang now daily grew mad by the constant ridicule and torment he endured by the hands of the coward. After his rescue from the strangle hold of the foreign bulldog, and the tyranny of the Beauty Smith, did the half breed finally settle down, through the ever patient love, and compassion of Weedem Scott. The half wolf returned the deed with great loyalty and lasting companionship. This new relationship would further blossom, and land the Artic beast in the cool Northern California sun. Hard to believe but this wild animal found himself in a new world. After settling in with his master’s family White Fang adjusted quickly to the life... Free Essays on White Fang Free Essays on White Fang White Fang is another of Jack London’s tales about the far reaches of the Artic. The journey into the lawless, and mysterious mind of a wild animal you will grow to love. The only survivor of the litter, the young pup was tested early. Already demonstrating a tight grip on life, that later would prove to be crucial. This puppy inherited brute strength from his wolf father, and great intelligence from his dog mother. This would eventually mold him into the freak of nature he was. The pup learned fast, and steadily he grew, both mentally and physically. In the Indian camp the little pup honed all his survival skills thanks to the daily persecution by Lip Lip and the puppy pack. In addition he and his mother were soon separated leaving young White Fang emotionally scarred. This caused a premature puppy hood, which would further help shape White Fang into clever ferocious beast that he would soon need to be. After settling with an Indian family, White Fang was soon sold to the biggest coward in the north. In the hands of Beauty Smith, White Fang was stripped of his freedom and dignity. Forced to fight to the death with strange dogs White Fang had never seen before. Battle after battle does White Fang proves his tenacious hold on life. White Fang now daily grew mad by the constant ridicule and torment he endured by the hands of the coward. After his rescue from the strangle hold of the foreign bulldog, and the tyranny of the Beauty Smith, did the half breed finally settle down, through the ever patient love, and compassion of Weedem Scott. The half wolf returned the deed with great loyalty and lasting companionship. This new relationship would further blossom, and land the Artic beast in the cool Northern California sun. Hard to believe but this wild animal found himself in a new world. After settling in with his master’s family White Fang adjusted quickly to the life...

The Development and Evolution of the CIAs Directorate of Science and Technology

The Development and Evolution of the CIAs Directorate of Science and Technology The CIA’s directorate of science and technology was founded on the recommendations of the Dulles committee, the Hoover commission, and the Eberstat committee who analyzed the intelligence programs of CIA and other government agencies in 1948 and found that scientific intelligence was wanting. It has its headquarters in Langley in McLean, Virginia.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Development and Evolution of the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is known by various names that include, Langley, the company, and the CIA. However, most of the important research installations are secret and some are hidden underground for security reasons (Richelson 181). The United States government created the first central intelligence agency, the office of strategic services (OSS) during world war one. It was tasked with special operations which included espionage, sabota ge, and counterintelligence among many other functions. After the war president Harry Truman disbanded OSS, and its functions taken by the war and states department. This led to the formation of the CIA. The CIA was made more powerful by the National Security Council directive on office of special projects in June 1948 (NSC 10/2) that mandated it to attack hostile elements including states, groups, or individuals secretly to totally absolve the United States in the minds of the public eye from blame. The central intelligence act of 1948 completely legalized the secrecy of the agency and hence it was not answerable to the public domain. The military arms of the government and the CIA had almost the same mandate because they complemented each other and sometimes it led to disagreements as in the case when the CIA put a stop to the Air Force attempt to take over a project they had initially rejected (Richelson 15) In 1953, the CIA under Allen W. Dulles became highly innovative and many scientific breakthroughs were made through his directorship. One area he succeeded was scientific intelligence gathering. It required extensive research to develop advanced technology and the CIA was mandated to come up with the technology to collect intelligence, analyze it, and come up with fail proof strategies to safe guard the American people and their soil. This resulted in the creation of the deputy directorate of research in 1962, which evolved to the deputy directorate of science and technology in 1963 later renamed the directorate of science and technology in 1965. Under Dulles, the most celebrated spy satellites, the U-2, A-12 and the Berlin tunnel were successfully built (Richelson 94). This was a major advancement in the espionage and signals intelligence as it gave the US the capability to analyze foreign countries weaponry.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More With these technologies, USA was able to spy on foreign countries including those viewed as hostile and aggressive towards it and hence it could be able to strategically create a defense system in response to the threats against it. Intelligence gathered could prevent costly and sometimes fatal missions to gather information that was previously done by trained soldiers or civilians. This hence explicitly showed that the future of power lay on intelligence and hence the CIA directorate of science and technology grew rapidly and became a force to reckon with. Many important medical technologies were discovered and are used extensively today including the heart pace maker. Despite the major advances in espionage technology and weaponry, the CIA directorate of science and technology felt the need to influence other foreign nations and hence lost tract of its mandate. Rear Admiral Roscoe Hillenkoetter, who was the first director of the CIA, successfully supported the Christian Democrats of It aly plunging USA into the world of foreign power manipulation to achieve its own end. This created a lot of resentment and distrust and major countries including the Soviet Union started a race to become as powerful as (or more powerful than) the United States. The CIA with its vast resources would have pioneered other projects that could have increased America’s security and sustainability. The competition for oil supplies was another front the CIA was directly involved in, and with its finances and technology it overthrew the Iran’s Premier Mohammed Mossadegh in 1953 through a coup. This was a direct provocation and most of the enmity and suspicion felt towards the United States by Arabian countries stemmed from the push to control oil resources in foreign countries notably Arabic countries. The Kennedy administration was responsible for the failed assassination attempt of the Cuban dictator Fidel Castro in 1961, famously known as the Bay of Pigs invasion. The United States government through the CIA trained 1500 Cuban exiles; who were supposed to invade Cuba and cause an uprising which would topple the dictator. The attempt backfired nastily and the president accepted to shoulder the blame in which some of the exiles were killed in action. The mess was a total embarrassment for the United States government and its intelligence agency as its intelligence had gone wrong. Fidel Castro became a hostile enemy of the United States and probably this rivalry would not be present had the United States kept out of the country’s affairs.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Development and Evolution of the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More President Ronald Reagan also continued his predecessor’s footsteps and despite the United States government having several scandals, his administration secretly sold arms in the 1980s to Ir an to be used against Iraq. This was despite the fact that the two countries were arch enemies. It was alleged that the proceeds from the secrets arm deals were used to fund terrorist groups attempting to overthrow the Nicaraguan government. This was against the congressional legislations and the United Nations directives. This illustrates the high handedness of the CIA as they could get away with anything despite having good legislation. These incidents clearly show that the agency was operating without restrain In the 1970s, under President Nixon, the curtain began falling on the agency perpetuated by the Watergate scandal where President Nixon using the CIA tried to unofficially impede the federal bureau of investigations from investigating a burglary in the Watergate headquarters carried out by ex-CIA agents. When the truth was finally out the president had to resign. Following revelations of the excesses of the CIA that included attempted assassinations, domestic citizen, spyin g, and other violations the congress sought to correct the problem by curtailing the powers of the CIA; through the church committee in the senate and in the House of Representatives through the pike committees. Somehow, these unfortunate incidents led the CIA to start modernizing its operations but with some delays (Richelson 234). It is true to say that to a large extent the CIA has failed in its inherent mandate of gathering and analyzing information. Contrary to its mandate of tracking down weapons of mass destruction, it failed to predict the Indian nuclear tests in 1974, though it had prior knowledge of the developments. In September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda managed to stage an attack in United States soil with huge losses in life and property. Lack of sharing information between intelligence agencies led to this catastrophic terrorism attack but an executive summary report indicated that the agency was not fully prepared to deal with the threats posed by Al-Qaeda. In 1986, the CIA set up a counterterrorist center to deal with terrorism. Regrettably, some of the most dangerous terrorists that have caused havoc and loss of innocent lives were a creation of the CIA. Osama bin laden who founded Al Qaeda was financially supported and given military training by the CIA in the late 80s.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The support of his group was initially aimed at fighting covert battles for the United States but the plan backfired and Osama bin laden became an extremist sorely focused to destroy American interests. Had the CIA stuck to its mandate and avoided active roles in foreign countries, probably terrorism activity would not be of the same magnitude as it is today and the strength that Al Qaeda had was a direct result of the early influences of the CIA. To counter terrorism, the CIA rose to the occasion and actively pursued terror masterminds whom they killed using advanced technology through drone attacks. Notably, in 1996 the CIA set up stations specifically to monitor and try to track Osama bin Laden through information supplied by Al-Fadl who defected to the CIA in 1976 a feat accomplished in 2011. With extensive and advanced technology, the CIA can and would have led the war on drugs and human trafficking especially in the United States soil; it could have predicted and stopped the o nset of genocides in Africa and other parts of the world. The CIA should have used its resources for the betterment of humanity through research in medicine, alternative power, and environmental conservation. There are many areas in the world today that require dedicated and continued research to solve some of the emerging issues and with its capability the CIA can succeed where others have failed. Richelson, Jeffrey. The Wizards of Langley: Inside the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology. Boulder, Co: West view Press, 2001. Print

International business MOVIE REVIEW Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

International business - Movie Review Example The American population has a record of making quite a huge size of garbage every year that amounts to about 250 million tonnes. The garbage is made up of fruit peels, bald tires, soda cans, frozen food container, etc. The size of the garbage produced is quite big and shocking. Whatever happens with the garbage produce is a subject that ‘Trash Inc: the secret Life of Garbage’ mainly undertakes. This documentary runs for one hour and is aired by CNBC on Wednesday. Carl Quintanilla is the documentary’s host and also known to be an Emmy award winning reporter. A big part of Quintanilla summer is seen through the documentary to be spent wading through garbage from Nevada, Pennsylvania to New York. Quintanilla also visits Beijing and Hawaii in the search of knowledge on garbage handling. Quintanilla tries to find out who handles garbage and what environmentally and economically is at stake. From the documentary, Quintanilla report indicates that garbage is both an oppo rtunity and an epidemic. The garbage industry is estimated to worth $52 billion in a yearly basis. This industry is also considered not be a one-size fit all. Most of America’s garbage is picked and transported to 2300 landfill within America. These landfills at the end make some huge profits towards their operators as some also capitalize on the landfill by piping out trash gas. The trash gas is mainly used within factories in the generation of electricity. Apex within Las Vegas is considered to be the largest landfill within the United States, and ‘Trash Inc.’ makes a visit there to know the operations of landfills. From Apex, the next trip is to Beijing which gives an opposite side of the story. Within Beijing, there are hundreds of dumps which are all illegal cropping up on the outskirts of the city. This dump sites are used to handle the high number of garbage that is produced by the

Fight or Flight Response Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Fight or Flight Response - Assignment Example Within a split second he moved back and almost stumbled by the lack of balance. He started to gasp as if he was choked and breathing rate elevated. He ran in an unknown but opposite direction of that source of fear. In no time he was perspiring like a waterfall. But after few minutes of disorganization he returned to his normal state. This is a classical scenario of flight and fight response. Walter B. Cannon was a physiologist who first outlined fight and flight as a chain reaction of biological changes that prepares the body for combat in response to a dangerous stimulus (Davis et al 2000). Our various body functions are controlled by biochemical mechanisms that regulate our biological system. The physiology of the response exhibited by Mr. Paul in the above scenario can be explained by changes that are bought up by our sympathetic system. Functionally, our nervous system can be divided into somatic and autonomic nervous system, not to confuse with central and peripheral nervous sy stem that is a division based on anatomic location. Autonomic nervous system can further be classified into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system is mostly involved in the process of reserving the body's energies. Whereas, sympathetic nervous system regulate biochemical processes that utilize body resources to quickly provide with the energy and changes required to combat an external dangerous stimuli. It’s important to take an in depth analysis of what are these changed how these changes are achieved by this system. The basic physiology: The sensory nervous system provides the cerebral cortex with the stimuli that is classified as dangerous. This designation of any stimuli as harmful is based on previous experiences or presumptions made by brain based on the processed information throughout life (Hellriegel et al 1979). Not only the sensory stimuli but psychological stimuli can also trigger a fight and flight response. For example giving a speech in front of a vast audience may be able to be a psychological stimuli leading to stage fear (Plotnick et al 2002). Once cerebral cortex perceives any stimuli, sensory or psychological, to be dangerous or capable of inducing flight or fight response a signal is sent to the hypothalamus to activate the sympathetic system. Sympathetic Response: On arrival of the signal, hypothalamus responds by two main mechanisms. Most of the biochemical changes are produced by these mechanisms. First it stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete a hormone called Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH). This hormone stimulates the release of corticoids that promote availability of glucose for metabolism throughout the body. Secondly, hypothalamus activates the sympathetic system. Sympathetic nervous system innervates most of the visceral organs of the body. Alpha and beta receptors on most of the vital organs are stimulated by this system causing increase in the heart rate and respiratory e fforts while reducing the gut motility. Therefore, during or after this response victim may experience gastric discomfort and constipation. Sympathetic nervous system also innervates the blood vessels. Therefore, vasoconstriction is an important change brought about by the sympathetic nervous system. It elevates blood pressure by increasing the total peripheral resistance of the body. Sympathetic activation of nervous system also triggers an important organ, the adrenal glands. These glands are responsible for the secretion of epinephrine and

HISTORY OF ISLAM 7th Century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

HISTORY OF ISLAM 7th Century - Essay Example Central to these developments was the conflict between Ali ibn Abi Talib and Mu’awiya. This paper will explore this chapter in Islamic history – outline the dynamic of such conflict and identify its effects. Because there is no formal hierarchy in place, issues of succession to the Islamic leadership ensues upon the death of a caliph, Muhammad’s successors. During the onset of the 7th century trouble started when the third caliph, Uthman, was murdered. Ali succeeded him, being the closest to the Prophet since he was a first cousin and a son-in-law to Muhammad. Uthman’s clan, called the Umayyads vowed revenge and would later support its own candidate to the Caliphate, which is Mu’awiya. One of Ali’s first edicts as the Islamic ruler was to replace all of Uthman’s appointees, particularly the governors - most of whom were Uthman’s kin. Mu’awiya was immediately covered by this decree as he was the governor of Syria. This factor along with Ali’s refusal to investigate and produce Uthman’s murderer led Mu’awiya to question the legitimacy of Ali’s rule. As a result, civil war broke between Ali and Mu’awiyaâ₠¬â„¢s forces. A first-hand account of this conflict was recorded by Sebeos, a 7th century bishop of Armenia. To quote: Now God sent a disturbance amongst the armies of the sons of Ismael, and their unity was split. They fell into mutual conflict and divided into four sections. One part [was composed of] those in the direction of India; one part, those who occupied Asorestan and the north; one part, those in Egypt and in the regions of the T’etalk; one part in the territory of the Arabs and the place called Askarawn†¦ The prince who was in the region of Asorestan, their prince called Muawiya†¦ When he saw what had occurred, he brought together his troops†¦ slew that other king whom they had installed, waged war with the army in the region of the Arabs, and inflicted great slaughter on them (Sebeos 154). Sebeos historical commentary

HEALTH ILLNESS AND SOCIETY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

HEALTH ILLNESS AND SOCIETY - Essay Example nditions of the poor and the rich differed notably in the UK(Office of National Statistics, 2007).Many socio-economic aspects can explain health inequalities. Not only poor people live less long than the rich people, but also they have more years of poor health. There is also inequality in access to health. The young and able-bodied people receive better treatment than theold and disabled people (BBC News, 2009).In UK one of most important health challenges existing today is diabetes.By 2011 the number of people affected by the problem of diabetes islikely to reach to 5 million (Diabetes and the disadvantaged: reducing health inequalities in the UK, 2006, p. 5). Almost half of these people are from disadvantaged community, who do not have adequate access to the appropriate care. Life expectancy at birth for men and women in all the social classes has increased from 1972-2006. Over the years mortality gap has been widened amongst social classes (Office of National Statistics, 2007).Death proportions for both the men and women have increased overtime. This is also true for children and adults. Improved living conditions, availability of healthcare and other factors have caused the infant mortality rate to fall significantly (Health Inequalities in the UK, 2009, 14). One can define health inequalities in two different ways. One is absolute and the other is relative. By subtracting one figure or rate from another, we get absolute inequalities and by dividing one number or rate by another, we get relative inequalities.Socio-economic class is the only cause of measuring health inequalities in England.There are many other dimensions of measuring health inequalities, which are also very important (Ihsan& Ahmad, 1993). There are differences of health among ethnic groups. In 2001 Chinese men and women in England and Wales reported the lowest frequencies of both poor health and restricting long-term ailment, while Pakistani and Bangladeshi men and women recounted the